Modernism Art Essay

As some critics contended, postmodernism represents a break with the modernist notion that architecture should be technologically rational, austere and functional, discuss the ways in which one postmodern architect has developed strategies which overcome these tendencies. Juxtaposition is seen between the characteristics of early 20th century modern architecture and the artistic endeavours of postmodernism that followed. To represent the ‘Less is More’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) notion the modernist tendencies had adopted, Robert Venturi built a ‘Ghost Structure’ to imply architecture had no longer become an art form and was merely just a ‘spectator’ (Architecturerevived, 2011) in society. This essay will discuss ways in which the architect Robert Venturi adopts methods to overcome these tendencies that architecture has lost meaning and ways in which he attempts to remove himself with any links with the ‘post-modernist’ movement that he is viewed in having. Modern Architects saw their role as ‘reformers,’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) and tended to break with tradition and start anew. Considering it was a new revolutionary movement they tended to ignore potential problems and focused on the new modern advancements available. A modernist tendency was to build individually however Venturi claimed that a ‘building derives meaning from its context’ (Out Of the Ordinary, 2002) and evidently each individual location requires a different form of architectural style to represent this. In Venturi’s book ‘Complexity and Contradiction’ he quotes ‘familiar things seen in unfamiliar context become perceptually new as well as old’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg43) here he perhaps means in order for art to become worthy of aesthetic appreciation the viewer needs to see it in a different context. For example, Tracy Emin’s unmade bed was placed in an art gallery and was more acceptable and appreciated as ‘art’ rather than being viewed in its original, everyday context. Venturi was focused on the reason behind and the visual perception of architecture, he believed that in applying a ‘medley of styles’ (S.V.Moos, 1987, pg32) opposed to an ‘either/or ‘(R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) mind-set would offer a varied combination of architectural styles. Thus enabling to a successful response to the multitude of tastes society desired, as he was well aware that there were an  array of underlying problems of everyday life. Problems that modernist architects tended to ignore due to their concern of the solution not corresponding with what they believed to be their perfect design. Venturi disregards modernist tendencies as he favours a more eclectic style rather than the ‘less is more’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) approach modernism supports. Venturi aims to ensure his buildings have ties with historical architecture thus to draw meaning and value. This was to evoke a sense of familiarity whilst still staying in context with a more modern environment. Venturi believed in using his knowledge from what he had learned and new had worked in the past, so sought to apply these techniques to his designs. An example of this is Venturi’s State Mosque of Iraq; (Ref 1) finished in 1982. Here Venturi sought to draw from numerous styles and periods, specifically, Art Nouveau. The purpose of incorporating so many previous instances was to provide meaning and depth to architecture once more. Venturi was inspired by the work of Edwin Lutyen’s Capital Buildings in New Delhi as Lutyen had successfully managed to integrate historical themes to look postmodern however with an underlying modernist culture. Post-modernist architects questioned the modernist tendency that form depends on function. Walter Gropius quoted ‘aesthetic image and monumentality of a design are more important than functionalism.’ (Architecturerevived, 2011) However the context of the building was all the more important. Venturi championed this and consequently revived the tendency to ‘change things around’ (Architecturerevived, 2011) to develop and discover a more motivating form. He believed that the simplicity of modernist designs were so minimal that they therefore could easily be manipulated to communicate historic and ornamental tendencies of the past whilst taking advantage of the modern advancements in technology and construction all the while considering the users requirements. An example of this is the Vanna Venturi House, (Ref 2) completed in 1961 which has multiple references to past periods and styles. Firstly the street faà §ade denotes Michelangelo’s Porta Pia in Rome, Alessondra Vittoria’s Villa  Barabo at Maser and finally the Nymphaeum at Palladio. Venturi quotes to ‘recognising the complexities and contradictions’ (S.V.Moos, 1987, pg244) in which this building instils, nevertheless was an ideal way to overcome his statement that ‘less is a bore.’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg17) Additionally Venturi’s love of distortion over ‘straightforward’ and ‘ambiguous’ over ‘articulation’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) notion is a prime example of how he overcame the modernist tendency of clean, designed and hence forth the exclusion of design traits. Venturi was similarly intrigued by the parallel of how design in the past related to the hierarchy of upper and lower classes of his today and whether or not the aesthetics of said classes could be outlined into categories that reflected the social divisions. More precisely he connected classical modern architecture with that of ancient upper classes such as ruins of palaces and the contrast of how they were erected differently from that of how Venturi describes as ‘ordinary’ peoples buildings. (Learning from Las Vegas, 1972) Everything appears to be in relation to, form, space and social responsibility also implying modern architecture seems to have forgotten the art of steganography in which was not only significantly spanning across four centuries from the 15th to the 19th century but was also how architects learnt to progress, appreciate and respect the aesthetic awareness of form. This can be related back to the Renaissance in which the development of form has been linked to the visual for centuries. Venturi wanted to instil ‘new perceptions of old functions’ (Architecturerevived, 2011). He sought to draw from the past and carefully extract relevant features and characteristics and with the buildings context in the forefront of his mind, apply them. An illustration of is how he exhibited historical examples from Baroque and Egyptian architecture to symbolise frames and overwhelm small window openings. He symbolically implied unconventional messages or problems he thought society needed to address, an  example of this being The Guild House, completed in 1963, (Ref 3) Philadelphia. It displays a system of layers with artistic meaning,  organisation and a well thought out design process which represents the importance of historical and architectural discourse. By instilling a gold-plated TV Ariel on top of the building signified what Venturi described as the ‘relevant revolution of today.’ (Architecturerevived, 2011) It communicated the underlying idea that the importance of architecture could potentially be forgotten with the advancement of TV and media. Venturi was concerned that the development of these new technologies were influential on art, ‘a machine for living while practical, is emotionless,’ (Molly Jacques, 2009) and that all reference to historical architecture could be perceived as irrelevant or even worse, lost in the progressing society he found himself in. Therefore the TV Ariel became demonstrative of this, a representation based on the theme of classical architecture. It was also said to represent the buildings inhabitants, by simply stereotyping the occupants, believing they watch too much TV, and alas the symbolic connotation of classical statues in cathedrals. Modern architects had pragmatic views. They believed technological advances allowed for the disregard of all historical periods and movements. Led by the new approach of ‘machines for living’ (The Arts – Le Corbusier, Dominic Gallagher) as Le Corbusier cited, inevitably led to the demise of decorative and aesthetics in favour for more organised and geometrical buildings, in addition to this there was a new enthusiasm for building vertically. Venturi believed that the introduction of this technologically motivated notion advertently simplified architecture so much so it had seen a departure from the ‘experience of life.’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg17) Consequently becoming focused on what characterised as Realism. Venturi studied people in their everyday life and routines, purposely so as not to exclude designing for social problems and consequently to design for the truth. A somewhat stark contrast to the modernist notion of designing for simplification or t he ‘Less is More’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) idea, as stated by Miles Van De Rohe. This evidently left many social questions unanswered or as Paul Rudolf, a prominent modernist architect quoted ‘all problems can never be solved.’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) Furthermore the development of new materials and constructional technological advances allowed for modernist architects to design freely with focus on spatial forms and  geometric proportions. Miles Van De Rohes Pavilion’s illustrate this as they lacked any sort of reference to the past as his desire and purpose was to exploit new technologies to the fullest and have no recognized relation to the past whatsoever. Venturi opposed this as he looked to past historical architecture for inspiration and saw relevance in previous movements and styles. This allowed him to design with meaning and by combing new methods of construction and technology allowed him to develop and erect innovative buildings that reflected historical traits whilst still fitting into a modern society. A further modernist view was that architecture was about a blend on technology and art, and to inevitably reform some sort of style they believed had become lost in tradition. They admired the emerging new developments, especially in transportation and new materials becoming available. They tried to instil this new, sleek, streamlined look in their buildings. It was almost as if they wanted to draw a line under the past and render a new concept of design to follow with the new advances that were being made in other fields. Nonetheless Venturi held on to his belief that architecture hadn’t become so much as lost but instead had been forgotten. Stating that ‘conventional elements’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg43) could be applied using the advanced methods the modernists championed, and that some sort of balance could be achieved. It suggests a complete rejection of the past is not relevant in order to move forward in not only a social aspect but also to cater for what appeared to be, a demand for a new architectural style. Venturi was positive in regards to the new materials and construction methods now available and did not deny that they were not beneficial to society in his today and stating ‘conventional elements’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg43) constructed in ‘unconventional ways’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg43) supports this. As does his design for the Vanna Venturi House, (Ref 2) constructed in 1961 in which an array of modernist materials were used, such as steel. Yet he chose to mix both development in techniques and materials with historical features to create a design that was visually, functionally and constructed successfully in design. Venturi became interested in the Las Vegas Strip (Ref 4) leading him to write the book ‘learning from Las Vegas’ published in 1972. He came to the conclusion that the city had been built to accommodate for the  technologically savvy society. The architectural advertisement method Vegas seemed to have adopted had all been carefully angled to appeal to the people now driving down the strip. This was an original concept in which to appeal to an audience not necessarily on foot. The architecture almost becomes an advertisement in itself and the landscape inadvertently develops into its notorious messy, chaotic and fast paced form, which also reflected the traits the city and people in it had undertook. The architecture became a direct contrast to the modernist tendencies as the strip ‘serves culture rather than dictates it.’ (Architecturerevived, 2011) this was perhaps as Vegas was competitive and needed to directly interact with its audience in order to entice them. Venturi was inspired to take aspects of how Las Vegas had so forcefully removed the constraints of which had seemed to be put upon architecture and apply it, however in a not so embellished manner. Venturi states how The Guild House (Ref 3) was built with these intentions as well as having a ‘vernacular’ (Perkowitz, 2002) idea in mind. He went on to exploit every available inch of building space obtainable, by building up six-stories high. An attribute in fact of the modernist conception, however Venturi came to this design conclusion to enable the inhabitants to interact more conveniently with the outside. This was said to be purposely done so as not to break up the prevailing aesthetics of the street, nonetheless still managed to introduce another dimension to it. A fragmented outline of the Southern faà §ade directly contrasts with the smooth surface of the North. This intentionally done so as the building was built for the elderly so rather than isolate, the distorted faà §ade in fact drew the outside in, to allow for maximum interaction in a visual nature. Venturi attempts to imply a Baroque Palazzo style upon the Guild House (Ref 3) by the introduction of white tiles on the lower and upper levels of the building. Which was believed to have ‘symbolic’ and ‘representational’ (S.V.Moos, 1987, pg25) components that merge as a whole which in avertedly was to reflect the architectural connotation of the structure. It was understood that the Guild House (Ref 3) was built on a system of layers. Layers of artistic meaning and organisation, each one symbolising the importance of the  historical and architectural discourse. This is reinforced by Venturi testifying ‘knowledge instead of learning’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg12) supports the fact he draws upon what was effective in the past and relates it to his own compositions. He breaks up the historical foundations and is driven and instils a sense of the past throughout his designs. The modernist notion of designing for what the architect believed society wanted rather than needed impacted primarily upon the poorer societies. Hence forth Venturi was particularly careful when building The Guild House perhaps to show designing with the context and user in mind can be achieved successfully without social problems having to be ignored or forgotten, again a tendency modern architecture seemed to adopt in fear of losing aesthetic value. Venturi sought to prove you could have both. In reflection it can be said that Venturi is extremely knowledgeable and has an in-depth understanding and appreciation for historical architecture in which he feel shouldn’t be forgotten but instead should be admired and inspire future movements. Despite modernism striping what Venturi believed was the ‘art’ from architecture he fought to overcome these tendencies are drew upon relevant historic features and characterisations and applied them liberally to his design, in accordance to their context. Nevertheless he understood that designing for the user was significant and not to exclude social problems. He undertook the modernist concept of advanced ways to construct and recognised and understood the developing society, yet he chose not to ignore historic references and applied them in a system of layers within his designs to accommodate for the advanced civilization whilst electing to apply asceticism for both a functional and visual experience. As some critics contended, postmodernism represents a break with the modernist notion that architecture should be technologically rational, austere and functional, discuss the ways in which one postmodern architect has developed strategies which overcome these tendencies. Juxtaposition is seen between the characteristics of early 20th century modern architecture and the artistic endeavours of postmodernism that followed. To represent the ‘Less is More’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) notion  the modernist tendencies had adopted, Robert Venturi built a ‘Ghost Structure’ to imply architecture had no longer become an art form and was merely just a ‘spectator’ (Architecturerevived, 2011) in society. This essay will discuss ways in which the architect Robert Venturi adopts methods to overcome these tendencies that architecture has lost meaning and ways in which he attempts to remove himself with any links with the ‘post-modernist’ movement that he is viewed in having. Modern Architects saw their role as ‘reformers,’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) and tended to break with tradition and start anew. Considering it was a new revolutionary movement they tended to ignore potential problems and focused on the new modern advancements available. A modernist tendency was to build individually however Venturi claimed that a ‘building derives meaning from its context’ (Out Of the Ordinary, 2002) and evidently each individual location requires a different form of architectural style to represent this. In Venturi’s book ‘Complexity and Contradiction’ he quotes ‘familiar things seen in unfamiliar context become perceptually new as well as old’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg43) here he perhaps means in order for art to become worthy of aesthetic appreciation the viewer needs to see it in a different context. For example, Tracy Emin’s unmade bed was placed in an art gallery and was more acceptable and appreciated as ‘art’ rather than being viewed in its original, everyday context. Venturi was focused on the reason behind and the visual perception of architecture, he believed that in applying a ‘medley of styles’ (S.V.Moos, 1987, pg32) opposed to an ‘either/or ‘(R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) mind-set would offer a varied combination of architectural styles. Thus enabling to a successful response to the multitude of tastes society desired, as he was well aware that there were an array of underlying problems of everyday life. Problems that modernist architects tended to ignore due to their concern of the solution not corresponding with what they believed to be their perfect design. Venturi disregards modernist tendencies as he favours a more eclectic style rather than the ‘less is more’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) approach modernism supports. Venturi aims to ensure his buildings have ties with historical architecture thus to draw meaning and value. This was to evoke a sense of  familiarity whilst still staying in context with a more modern environment. Venturi believed in using his knowledge from what he had learned and new had worked in the past, so sought to apply these techniques to his designs. An example of this is Venturi’s State Mosque of Iraq; (Ref 1) finished in 1982. Here Venturi sought to draw from numerous styles and periods, specifically, Art Nouveau. The purpose of incorporating so many previous instances was to provide meaning and depth to architecture once more. Venturi was inspired by the work of Edwin Lutyen’s Capital Buildings in New Delhi as Lutyen had successfully managed to integrate historical themes to look postmodern however with an underlying modernist culture. Post-modernist architects questioned the modernist tendency that form depends on function. Walter Gropius quoted ‘aesthetic image and monumentality of a design are more important than functionalism.’ (Architecturerevived, 2011) However the context of the building was all the more important. Venturi championed this and consequently revived the tendency to ‘change things around’ (Architecturerevived, 2011) to develop and discover a more motivating form. He believed that the simplicity of modernist designs were so minimal that they therefore could easily be manipulated to communicate historic and ornamental tendencies of the past whilst taking advantage of the modern advancements in technology and construction all the while considering the users requirements. An example of this is the Vanna Venturi House, (Ref 2) completed in 1961 which has multiple references to past periods and styles. Firstly the street faà §ade denotes Michelangelo’s Porta Pia in Rome, Alessondra Vittoria’s Villa Barabo at Maser and finally the Nymphaeum at Palladio. Venturi quotes to ‘recognising the complexities and  contradictions’ (S.V.Moos, 1987, pg244) in which this building instils, nevertheless was an ideal way to overcome his statement that ‘less is a bore.’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg17) Additionally Venturi’s love of distortion over ‘straightforward’ and ‘ambiguous’ over ‘articulation’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) notion is a prime example of how he overcame the modernist tendency of  clean, designed and hence forth the exclusion of design traits. Venturi was similarly intrigued by the parallel of how design in the past related to the hierarchy of upper and lower classes of his t oday and whether or not the aesthetics of said classes could be outlined into categories that reflected the social divisions. More precisely he connected classical modern architecture with that of ancient upper classes such as ruins of palaces and the contrast of how they were erected differently from that of how Venturi describes as ‘ordinary’ peoples buildings. (Learning from Las Vegas, 1972) Everything appears to be in relation to, form, space and social responsibility also implying modern architecture seems to have forgotten the art of steganography in which was not only significantly spanning across four centuries from the 15th to the 19th century but was also how architects learnt to progress, appreciate and respect the aesthetic awareness of form. This can be related back to the Renaissance in which the development of form has been linked to the visual for centuries. Venturi wanted to instil ‘new perceptions of old functions’ (Architecturerevived, 2011). He sought to draw from the past and carefully extract relevant features and characteristics and with the buildings context in the forefront of his mind, apply them. An illustration of is how he exhibited historical examples from Baroque and Egyptian architecture to symbolise frames and overwhelm small window openings. He symbolically implied unconventional messages or problems he thought society needed to address, an  example of this being The Guild House, completed in 1963, (Ref 3) Philadelphia. It displays a system of layers with artistic meaning, organisation and a well thought out design process which represents the importance of historical and architectural discourse. By instilling a gold-plated TV Ariel on top of the building signified what Venturi described as the ‘relevant revolution of today.’ (Architecturerevived, 2011) It communicated the underlying idea that the importance of architecture could potentially be forgotten with the advancement of TV and media. Venturi was concerned that the development of these new technologies were influential on art, ‘a machine for living while practical, is emotionless,’ (Molly Jacques,  2009) and that all reference to historical architecture could be perceived as irrelevant or even worse, lost in the progressing society he found himself in. Therefore the TV Ariel became demonstrative of this, a representation based on the theme of classical architecture. It was also said to represent the buildings inhabitants, by simply stereotyping the occupants, believing they watch too much TV, and alas the symbolic connotation of classical statues in cathedrals. Modern architects had pragmatic views. They believed technological advances allowed for the disregard of all historical periods and movements. Led by the new approach of ‘machines for living’ (The Arts – Le Corbusier, Dominic Gallagher) as Le Corbusier cited, inevitably led to the demise of decorative and aesthetics in favour for more organised and geometrical buildings, in addition to this there was a new enthusiasm for building vertically. Venturi believed that the introduction of this technologically motivated notion advertently simplified architecture so much so it had seen a departure from the ‘experience of life.’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg17) Consequently becoming focused on what characterised as Realism. Venturi studied people in their everyday life and routines, purposely so as not to exclude designing for social problems and consequently to design for the truth. A somewhat stark contrast to the modernist notion of designing for simplification or t he ‘Less is More’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) idea, as stated by Miles Van De Rohe. This evidently left many social questions unanswered or as Paul Rudolf, a prominent modernist architect quoted ‘all problems can never be solved.’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg16) Furthermore the development of new materials and constructional technological advances allowed for modernist architects to design freely with focus on spatial forms and geometric proportions. Miles Van De Rohes Pavilion’s illustrate this as they lacked any sort of reference to the past as his desire and purpose was to exploit new technologies to the fullest and have no recognized relation to the past whatsoever. Venturi opposed this as he looked to past historical architecture for inspiration and saw relevance in previous movements and styles. This allowed him to design with meaning and by combing new methods of construction and technology allowed him to develop and erect innovative buildings that reflected historical traits whilst still fitting into a  modern society. A further modernist view was that architecture was about a blend on technology and art, and to inevitably reform some sort of style they believed had become lost in tradition. They admired the emerging new developments, especially in transportation and new materials becoming available. They tried to instil this new, sleek, streamlined look in their buildings. It was almost as if they wanted to draw a line under the past and render a new concept of design to follow with the new advances that were being made in other fields. Nonetheless Venturi held on to his belief that architecture hadn’t become so much as lost but instead had been forgotten. Stating that ‘conventional elements’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg43) could be applied using the advanced methods the modernists championed, and that some sort of balance could be achieved. It suggests a complete rejection of the past is not relevant in order to move forward in not only a social aspect but also to cater for what appeared to be, a demand for a new architectural style. Venturi was positive in regards to the new materials and construction methods now available and did not deny that they were not beneficial to society in his today and stating ‘conventional elements’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg43) constructed in ‘unconventional ways’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg43) supports this. As does his design for the Vanna Venturi House, (Ref 2) constructed in 1961 in which an array of modernist materials were used, such as steel. Yet he chose to mix both development in techniques and materials with historical features to create a design that was visually, functionally and constructed successfully in design. Venturi became interested in the Las Vegas Strip (Ref 4) leading him to write the book ‘learning from Las Vegas’ published in 1972. He came to the conclusion that the city had been built to accommodate for the technologically savvy society. The architectural advertisement method Vegas seemed to have  adopted had all been carefully angled to appeal to the people now driving down the strip. This was an original concept in which to appeal to an audience not necessarily on foot. The architecture almost becomes an advertisement in itself and the landscape inadvertently develops into its notorious messy, chaotic and fast paced form, which also reflected the  traits the city and people in it had undertook. The architecture became a direct contrast to the modernist tendencies as the strip ‘serves culture rather than dictates it.’ (Architecturerevived, 2011) this was perhaps as Vegas was competitive and needed to directly interact with its audience in order to entice them. Venturi was inspired to take aspects of how Las Vegas had so forcefully removed the constraints of which had seemed to be put upon architecture and apply it, however in a not so embellished manner. Venturi states how The Guild House (Ref 3) was built with these intentions as well as having a ‘vernacular’ (Perkowitz, 2002) idea in mind. He went on to exploit every available inch of building space obtainable, by building up six-stories high. An attribute in fact of the modernist conception, however Venturi came to this design conclusion to enable the inhabitants to interact more conveniently with the outside. This was said to be purposely done so as not to break up the prevailing aesthetics of the street, nonetheless still managed to introduce another dimension to it. A fragmented outline of the Southern faà §ade directly contrasts with the smooth surface of the North. This intentionally done so as the building was built for the elderly so rather than isolate, the distorted faà §ade in fact drew the outside in, to allow for maximum interaction in a visual nature. Venturi attempts to imply a Baroque Palazzo style upon the Guild House (Ref 3) by the introduction of white tiles on the lower and upper levels of the building. Which was believed to have ‘symbolic’ and ‘representational’ (S.V.Moos, 1987, pg25) components that merge as a whole which in avertedly was to reflect the architectural connotation of the structure. It was understood that the Guild House (Ref 3) was built on a system of layers. Layers of artistic meaning and organisation, each one symbolising the importance of the historical and architectural discourse. This is reinforced by Venturi testifying ‘knowledge instead of learning’ (R.Venturi, 1966, pg12) supports the fact he draws upon what was effective in the past and relates it to his own compositions. He breaks up the historical foundations and is driven and instils a sense of the past throughout his designs. The modernist notion of designing for what the architect believed society wanted rather than needed impacted primarily upon the poorer societies. Hence forth Venturi was particularly careful when building The Guild House perhaps to show designing  with the context and user in mind can be achieved successfully without social problems having to be ignored or forgotten, again a tendency modern architecture seemed to adopt in fear of losing aesthetic value. Venturi sought to prove you could have both. In reflection it can be said that Venturi is extremely knowledgeable and has an in-depth understanding and appreciation for historical architecture in which he feel shouldn’t be forgotten but instead should be admired and inspire future movements. Despite modernism striping what Venturi believed was the ‘art’ from architecture he fought to overcome these tendencies are drew upon relevant historic features and characterisations and applied them liberally to his design, in accordance to their context. Nevertheless he understood that designing for the user was significant and not to exclude social problems. He undertook the modernist concept of advanced ways to construct and recognised and understood the developing society, yet he chose not to ignore historic references and applied them in a system of layers within his designs to accommodate for the advanced civilization whilst electing to apply asceticism for both a functional and visual experience.

High school Essay

* â€Å"Literacy is a human right, a tool of personal empowerment and a means for social and human development. Educational opportunities depend on literacy. â€Å"Literacy is at the heart of basic education for all, and essential for eradicating poverty, reducing child mortality, curbing population growth, achieving gender equality and ensuring sustainable development, peace and democracy. † (â€Å"Why Is Literacy Important? † UNESCO, 2010) * â€Å"The notion of basic literacy is used for the initial learning of reading and writing which adults who have never been to school need to go through. The term functional literacy is kept for the level of reading and writing which adults are thought to need in modern complex society. Use of the term underlines the idea that although people may have basic levels of literacy, they need a different level to operate in their day-to-day lives. † (David Barton, Literacy: An Introduction to the Ecology of Written Language, 2nd ed. WileyBlackwell, 2006) * â€Å"To acquire literacy is more than to psychologically and mechanically dominate reading and writing techniques. It is to dominate those techniques in terms of consciousness; to understand what one reads and to write what one understands: it is to communicate graphically. Acquiring literacy does not involve memorizing sentences, words or syllables–lifeless objects unconnected to an existential universe–but rather an attitude of creation and re-creation, a self-transformation producing a stance of intervention in one’s context. † (Paulo Freire, Education for Critical Consciousness. Sheed & Ward, 1974) * â€Å"There is hardly an oral culture or a predominantly oral culture left in  the world today that is not somehow aware of the vast complex of powers forever inaccessible without literacy. † (Walter J. Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Methuen, 1982) * â€Å"We expect the contradictory and the impossible. . . . We expect to be inspired by mediocre appeals for ‘excellence,’ to be made literate by illiterate appeals for literacy. † (Daniel J. Boorstin, The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America, 1961) * Women and Literacy â€Å"In the history of women, there is probably no matter, apart from contraception, more important than literacy. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, access to power required knowledge of the world. This could not be gained without reading and writing, skills that were granted to men long before they were to women. Deprived of them, women were condemned to stay home with the livestock, or, if they were lucky, with the servants. (Alternatively, they may have been the servants. ) Compared with men, they led mediocre lives. In thinking about wisdom, it helps to read about wisdom–about Solomon or Socrates or whomever. Likewise, goodness and happiness and love. To decide whether you have them, or want to make the sacrifices necessary to get them, it is useful to read about them. Without such introspection, women seemed stupid; therefore, they were considered unfit for education; therefore, they weren’t given an education; therefore they seemed stupid. † (Joan Acocella, â€Å"Turning the Page. † Review of The Woman Reader by Belinda Jack [Yale University Press, 2012]. The New Yorker, October 15, 2012) * From the website of California Literacy, Inc. â€Å"The literacy rate in the US has many educators in search of answers about this problem that has plagued our country for decades. Instead of decreasing, the numbers of literacy has steadily increased over the years. This raises a lot of questions about our education system, how it is ran, and why there is such a problem with illiterate people in our country. † (quoted by The New Yorker, Nov. 22, 2010) Pronunciation: LIT-er-eh-see Language * Six Common Myths About Language * Key Dates in the History of the English Language * Introduction to Etymology: Word Histories Elsewhere on the Web * The National Institute for Literacy (US) * The Literacy Project * National Literacy Trust (UK) Resources for Writers * Reference Works for Writers and Editors * Grammar and Usage Advice Sites * Sites for Correcting Common Sentence Errors Related Articles * orality – definition and examples of orality * illiteracy – definition and examples of illiteracy * aliteracy – definition and examples of aliteracy * Adult Education – What Is Adult Education * Writing Degree – Do I Need a Writing Degree Richard Nordquist Grammar & Composition Guide * Sign up for My Newsletter * Headlines * Forum Advertisement. Related Searches achieving gender equality paulo freire education curbing population growth critical consciousness paulo freire personal empowerment Explore Grammar & Composition Must Reads * What Is Grammar? * Euphemisms for Death * Commonly Confused Words * 400 Essay Topics * Introductions to 30 Figures of Speech Most Popular * What Is a Metaphor? * Writing Topics: Argument * Top 20 Figures of Speech * 400 Writing Topics * metaphor See More About: * english language By Category * Writing Tips * Business Writing * Correcting Errors * English Grammar * Punctuation & Mechanics. * Composing Sentences * Words * Composing Paragraphs * Composing Essays * Rhetoric and Style * Exercises and Quizzes * Readings and Resources * Grammar & Rhetoric Glossary Grammar & Composition 1. About. com 2. Education 3. Grammar & Composition 4. Grammar & Rhetoric Glossary 5. Icon – Lower Case 6. literacy – definition and examples of literacy * Advertise on About. com * Our Story * News & Events * SiteMap * All Topics * Reprints * Help * Write for About * Careers at About * User Agreement * Ethics Policy * Patent Info. * Privacy Policy * Your Ad Choices  ©2013 About. com. All rights reserved. The Greatest Literacy Challenges Facing Contemporary High School Teachers: Implications for Secondary Teacher Preparation Mary B. Campbell Saint Xavier University Margaret M. Kmiecik Saint Xavier University Secondary teachers face significant challenges in their efforts to increase the literacy levels of adolescents. Encouraging teachers to speak out about these challenges and to recommend initiatives that may improve literacy practices for adolescents is vital for future reform efforts. This study examines the questions: â€Å"What are the greatest literacy challenges facing high school content area teachers? † and â€Å"What will help to diminish these challenges? † The data collection questionnaire was distributed to teachers in eight high schools throughout the greater Chicago area. A discussion of the findings suggests compelling directions for secondary teachers and teacher educators. 2 Reading Horizons, 2004, 4, (1) WHILE SEVERAL REFORMS in higher education teacher preparation have made a difference in more teachers being highly prepared and qualified (Smylie, Bay, & Tozer, 1999), preparing teachers to meet the literacy demands of secondary students still remains inadequate. Improving literacy learning in our nation’s high schools needs serious elevation as an educational priority at all levels. The 2002 NAEP (National Association for Educational Progress) Report indicates that 36 percent of students in grade 12 performed at a proficient level, indicating that only a little over one-third of our nation’s high school seniors can understand challenging material (Feller, 2003). This was a decline in performance from 1998 when the NAEP reported the percentage of seniors who performed at the proficient level as 40 percent (U. S. Department of Education, 1999). Additionally the 1998 report states that no more than 6 percent of the adolescents performed at the advanced level which demonstrates students’ ability to analyze and extend the meaning of the materials they read. The NAEP data further show more than one-third of the students did not demonstrate competence at a basic level of literacy. The International Reading Association has taken a substantial leadership role in elevating attention to middle school and secondary literacy issues by establishing the Commission on Adolescent Literacy in 1997 (Rycik & Irvin, 2001). The work of this Commission resulted in the published document, Adolescent Literacy: A Position Statement (Moore, Bean, Birdyshaw, & Rycik, 1999), which recommends principles for teachers to consider when supporting the literacy growth of secondary students. Still much more comprehensive work needs to be done as challenges still persist and â€Å"teachers, administrators, and staff developers have asked for more examples of practices that might renew and revitalize their efforts for middle and high school students† (Rycik & Irvin, 2001, p.4). Teaching has greatly increased in range and complexity over the last decade. Teachers now find themselves in highly pressured environments (Pincas, 2002). Faced with the reality of overcrowded classrooms, high stakes testing, and standards-based environments, using instructional practices that move students to higher levels of thinking through more â€Å"authentic† forms of learning are lost. Additional factors Secondary Teaclher Literacy Clhallenges 3  that compound the situation are high student mobility, absenteeism, minimal student engagement, misbehavior, missing homework, cultural and linguistic diversity, special needs, and increasing numbers of students from poverty and single parent households (Alvermann, Hinchman, Moore, Phelps, & Waff, 1998). Regardless of the number or degree of challenges, teachers still remain accountable for fostering literacy growth among all students. Efforts to improve literacy learning for secondary students must take seriously the realities and challenges persistent in today’s high schools. Reform theorists who suggest â€Å"improvement can be made through a series of workshops, enhanced technology, sanctions and the like,† (Smylie, Bay, & Tozer, 1999, p. 59) are naive at best. A new paradigm requires comprehensive and systemic change. It also requires a serious re-orientation towards broad organizational, political, and economic presuppositions on which definition and acquisition of change must be based. Moreover, it involves a commitment to putting teachers at the forefront of the reform process. Valencia and Wixson (2000) argue that it is time for the voices of teachers to be heard. Without empowered professional voices, we lose the potential for constructing serious reform. Emerging Directions If students are to achieve high literacy standards, evidence strongly suggests that what teachers know and can do is one of the more important factors influencing student achievement. (Darling-Hammond, 1999, p. 228). Research also makes it clear that â€Å"if teachers are to negotiate the demands of new standards and new students, they must have access to a deeper base of knowledge and expertise than most teacher preparation programs now provide† (Darling-Hammond, 1999, p.229). While several studies have looked at reform in teacher preparation programs, Schwartz (1996) concluded that reform changes in teacher preparation have resulted in â€Å"little more than adjusting on the margins† (p. 3). Particularly troubling, in secondary teacher preparation, is the limited attention given to the challenges existing in schools in which future teachers must help students to achieve literacy, and the problems 4 Reading Horizons, 2004, 4, (1) of schooling in a broader social context. Moreover, in many states, secondary teacher preparation programs include a requirement of a content area reading course, whereas in other states there is no equivalent requirement. This has remained literally unchanged for years, even as secondary students continue to struggle with reading and writing throughout the high school curriculum. The wide-spread standards movement has made some impact in requiring newly certified teachers to demonstrate competency on specific literacy knowledge and performance indicators. However, the depth of what is needed to teach content area literacy in secondary schools requires more than one course, and/or a few standards. Connecting Two Distinct Communities Education can no longer be seen as an exclusive function, and the traditional structures cannot remain isolated from social change. Faculties in colleges and universities and the practicing teachers in secondary schools have no choice but to adjust to new paradigms. While it is now more common to find partnerships and institutional collaborations between university faculty and secondary teachers, many of these need redefinition. In many partnerships, â€Å"practicing teachers have related there has not been a high level of reciprocity, as the universities are too dominant† (Campbell, 2002, p. 22). Each entity must put into the equation improvement strategies that are meaningful to their respective organizations; that is, they need to identify areas where they truly need help from one another. Then institutionally and programmatically, they need to find ways to work together to make those intended improvements a reality (Howey & Zimpher, 1999, p. 299). High school teachers and teacher educators alike are looking to move beyond  yet another â€Å"good idea† to realize reconceptualization and transformation for secondary literacy education. This means engaging high school teachers in the process of secondary teacher preparation, determining what factors pose the greatest challenges to literacy development and using this knowledge as a cornerstone for improving Secondary Teaclher Literacy Clhallenges literacy practices in schools. Failure to confront these challenges effectively will undoubtedly compromise the ability of teachers to serve as effective agents of change. Purpose The purpose of this study was to identify the problems secondary teachers face that impede literacy learning in the classrooms and to yield information that may inform the preparation of future secondary teachers. Two broad questions emerged to guide this study: o What are the greatest literacy challenges facing high school content area teachers? e What will help to diminish these challenges for current and/or future high school teachers? The Study ParticipatingS chools and Teachers The schools that participated in this study included eight high schools, seven public and one private. The researchers purposely selected the schools to ensure ethnic diversity as well as urban and suburban representation. Six of the high schools represented grades 10-12 and two included grades 9-12. The school principals granted permission to graduate students enrolled in a Masters Degree Program in Reading to place the High School Literacy Survey in the school mailboxes of the teachers. A total of 450 questionnaires, including a cover letter and a stamped return envelope, were distributed to 9-12 teachers. Two hunared and two questionnaires were returned, realizing a return rate of 45 percent. There were no follow-up attempts to obtain a higher return rate. Most respondents (71 percent) had advanced degrees beyond the B. A. or B. S. : among these were 68 percent with a M. A. and 3 percent with a Ph. D. Teachers from 18 different subject area fields responded to the survey. English (18 percent), mathematics (16 percent), and science (15 percent) teachers comprised the majority of participants. The remaining teachers represented the following subjects; art (3 percent), 5. 6 ReadingHorizons, 2004, 45, (1) business (4 percent), technology (4 percent), driver’s education (1 percent), foreign language (6 percent), history (7 percent), library (1 percent), music (1 percent), physical education (3 percent), reading (1 percent), radio/television (1 percent), social studies (8 percent), special education (3 percent), theology (3 percent), and vocational education (4 percent). Teachers with more than 10 years of experience accounted for 63 percent of the sample, while 37 percent had 10 years or less. Teachers working in suburban areas surrounding the greater Chicago area comprised the majority (67 percent) of the sample population, with the remaining 33 percent coming from urban schools. Forty-four percent described their schools as predominately diverse (> 50 percent), 32 percent considerably diverse (30-50 percent minority), 17 percent somewhat diverse (10-30 percent minority) and 7 percent primarily white (less than 10 percent minority). The Questionnaire We collected the data from a survey instrument, High School. Literacy Survey, designed and constructed by us. The questionnaire requested two types of information: * objective, relating to educational degrees, content field of study, years of teaching experience, diversity of school population * subjective, relating to opinions and values in teaching and learning The subjective portion of the survey was comprised of two broad questions. The first question asked teachers to identify 5 of the 20 factors that posed the greatest challenges in helping their students to attain literacy in their subject field. Respondents wrote the numeral 1 next to the statement representing their greatest challenge, the numeral 2 next to the statement representing their next greatest challenge, and so forth through the numeral 5. (See Appendix) The twenty statements, defined as challenges, were derived from the literature on content area reading. An extensive review of the literature Secondary Teaclher Literacy Clhallenges 7 resulted in identifying twenty challenges, however, these may not represent all possible factors and they may not represent factors that teachers would have included if they were to construct the questionnaire. A space was provided for teachers entitled â€Å"other† for their convenience in identifying additional factors that pose as challenges. Since no specific theory was identified to serve as a foundation for the selection of factors, they represent an eclectic representation. Additionally, the factors were not defined on the questionnaire, indicating that a singular definition cannot be assumed and that the factors may represent multiple meanings in the field. The second question invited the teachers to respond openly to the question, â€Å"What do you believe will help to diminish these challenges for current and/or future high school teachers? † Findings Percentages were used to report the data on the high school teachers’ perceptions about the factors that challenge them most in helping their students to achieve literacy in their subject area. Table 1. Percentage Responses of Factors that Represent the Greatest Literacy Challenges Factors Percent 1 2 3 4 5 Total Assessment of student learning 2 1 1 2 2 8 Classroom environment 1 2 – 1 2 6 Classsize 4 4 6 8 5 27 Cultural and language diversity – 1 – 1 – 2 among students Curriculum – 1 2_ 1A _3 7. 8 Reading Horizons, 2004, 45, (1) Factors Percent 1 2 3 4 5 Total Helping students to construct. meaning from text Helping students interpret graphics in text Helping students to learn and use critical thinking skills Helping students to locate and organize information Helping students to understand concepts and vocabulary Homework issues Integrating technology for teaching and learning Selecting materials for teaching and learning Organizing and managing the classroom for learning State/district/school standards for students Struggling readers Student motivation/interest/attitudes 3 6 6 7 7 1 1 – 3 2 16 8 12 11 12 1 5 5 4 3 8 3 6 11 12 5 8 10 6 7 1 5 2 1 3 – – 1 – 4 1 2 – 2 3 1 1 1 1 2 9 9 8 8 8. 33 17 17 8 7 1 5 5 5 3 19 29 7 59 18 40 36 12 5 8 6 42 82 Students with special needs Secondary Teacher Literacy Chiallenges Factors Percent 1 2 3 4 5 Total Students who lack study skills 11 13 13 13 7 57 Writing skills of students 2 8 5 7 8 30 (A ranking scale, with 1 meaning â€Å"greatest challenge,† 2 â€Å"next greatest challenge,† and so forth) The top five challenges as reported in Table 1 were: * student motivation, interests, and attitudes (33 percent) o helping students to learn and use critical thinking skills (16 percent) o students who lack study skills (11 percent) o struggling readers (9 percent). o helping students to understand concepts and vocabulary (8 percent). The least perceived challenges were cultural and language diversity among students (2 percent) and selecting materials for teaching and learning (5 percent). Examining the data of the largest responding groups of content area teachers, English, mathematics, and science, yielded similar findings. All three of these groups identified the same top two challenges as did the total group. The English, mathematics, and science teachers’ third, fourth and fifth rankings were: * English > (3) homework issues > (4) students who lack study skills. > (5) writing skills of students o Mathematics > (3) students who lack study skills 9 iO Reading Horizons, 2004, 45, (1) > (4) homework issues > (5) helping students to locate and organize information e Science: > (3) students who lack study skills > (4) helping students to understand concepts and vocabulary > (5) helping students to construct meaning from text The teachers were also asked to respond to the following openended question, â€Å"What do you believe will help to diminish these challenges for current and/or future high school teachers? † Seventyseven percent of the teachers wrote responses to this question. The resppnses were grouped by similar topics from which themes emerged. Table 2 reports the percentages of the most frequently occurring responses to the open-ended question. Table 2. Themes and Percentages of Responses for Confronting the Greatest Challenges Most Frequent Responses by Theme Percent Better basic skills instruction in elementary schools 64 More parent responsibility and support 58 Mandatory inclusion of critical 39 thinking questions on all assessments Study skills classes for incoming students 33 I Iimprove teacher preparation/more methods for 28 secondary teachers. Greater respect and support from society 20 Practical/useful staff development 11 Secondary TeachterLiteracy Challenges ‘ 11 Most Frequent Responses by Theme Percent Teacher task forces making policy decisions 9 instead of politicians and administrators Complete restructuring of the current traditional 7 education model A center at each high school for struggling readers The most common responses cited by the majority of teachers to confront the greatest challenges (Table 2) were better basic skills instruction in elementary schools (64 percent) and more parent responsibility and support (58 percent). Sample responses given by less than 50 percent of the teachers were mandatory inclusion of critical thinking questions on all assessments (39 percent), study skills classes for incoming students (33 percent), and improvement of teacher preparation with more methods for secondary teachers (28 percent). Discussion The results of this study provide insight for the continuing efforts to improve the literacy levels of secondary students. They are, however, neither exclusive nor exhaustive. They are offered with no claim for the universality or total generalizability, but they are offered as a common ground for thinking. Student Motivation andA ttitudes High school teachers identified student motivation to read, write, and do other literacy-related activities as their greatest challenge. The teachers’ written comments on questionnaires indicated that much of the class-assigned reading is often boring and not relevant to the student’s own interests and experiences. They also stated that the students who will not read are as much at a disadvantage as those who cannot. Student 12 Reading Horizons, 2004, 45, (1) motivation was ranked the greatest challenge of all for the participating teachers. The dilemma of identifying and implementing strategies to motivate adolescents is not new to literacy practice. The data from this study confirm what the research (Alexander & Filler, 1976; Au & Asam, 1996; Benware & Deci, 1984; Collins-Block, 1992; Guthrie & Alao, 1997; Schraw, Brunning, & Svoboda, 1995) has documented over time: that student motivation, interests, and attitudes are indeed authentic challenges. Teaching adolescents to become active, motivated, and selfregulated learners is a continuing issue in secondary schools. It is during the adolescent years when reading motivation and attitudes appear to worsen, especially for poor readers (McKenna, Kear, & Ellsworth, 1995). Serious attempts to advance literacy skills require interventions that address motivation and attitudes as much as interventions that assure cognitive changes in the learners (Verhoevan & Snow, 2001). This generally does not happen. Motivational constructs are usually not given significant vigilance in relation to student cognition and thinking, and at best, are given only passing and superficial attention. A further problem is that standard reading texts and uniform curricula make life somewhat easier for teachers and administrators, but they make it very difficult for students to get involved with the material at the level that is right for them, and therefore to find intrinsic rewards in learning. In the classroom, the teacher is the key element in motivating students to learn. The responsibility is great and the ramifications even greater, yet many responding high school teachers stated they were not adequately prepared in their teacher preparation programs with the knowledge, skills, and instructional strategies to ignite the spirit of their students. These teachers indicated they want more ideas, support, and freedom within the school curriculum to take the lead, and more ways to experience first-hand, in-field, motivational issues in their teacher preparation programs. Critical Thinking Skills. Teaching critical thinking skills was the second greatest challenge for teachers. Large numbers of teachers indicated they feel underSecondary Teachter Literacy Clhallenges 13 prepared in pedagogical methods to help studenis conceptualize problems and solutions. Assisting adolescents to become proficient with these skills is a prodigious challenge for secondary teachers. The capacity for abstraction, for discovering patterns and meanings, generalizing, evaluating, and theorizing is the very essence of critical thinking and exploration. For most students in the United States and throughout the world, formal education entails just the opposite kind of learning. Rather than construct meaning for themselves, meanings are imposed upon them. Frequently, students often accumulate a large number of facts along the way, yet these facts are not central to their education; they will live their adult lives in a world in which most facts learned years before (even including some historical ones) will have changed or have been reinterpreted. Whatever data they need will be available to them at the touch of a computer key. If students are to learn critical thinking skills, teachers must teach them and engage their students in genuine problem solving discussion. Generally these skills are best, and likely only taught and assessed, through extended discourse. This is difficult to do in crowded classes where it is near to impossible to carry out extended discussions. The commitment to teaching these skills in all content areas means gaining support from the public. It also means that teachers must gain the knowledge and skills to do so through teacher preparation programs and inservice education, taking into account the real-life situations and parameters in today’s classrooms. Study Skills Students who lack study skills ranked as the third greatest challenge to teachers. The importance of study skills has been documented over time in the professional literature (Flood & Lapp, 1995). What is known is that many people of all ages have difficulty reading and learning, largely because they are not using appropriate techniques or good learning habits. Often, the adolescents who are dropping out of schools are doing so because they believe they carnot learn. For the majority of these students, they lack suitable reading and study techniques, which 14 Reading Horizons, 2004, 45(1) impede their growth in learning and contribute to their negative beliefs about themselves and school. Although most secondary teachers have a thorough understanding qf their subject, many responding teachers in this study indicated they lack the knowledge of instructional/study strategies by which to help students internalize the concepts. Research shows that with an organized system of study, students can increase their comprehension of subject matter up to 50 percent (Annis, 1983). As nations seek to assist adolescents in gaining higher levels of literacy, the knowledge and skills that teachers need to teach their students effective study habits and strategies may likely become central to the curriculum in secondary teacher preparation programs and in the curriculum of secondary schools. Struggling Readers Struggling readers ranked as the fourth greatest challenge to the high school teachers. Teachers responded that these students can be found â€Å"hiding out† in content classrooms. They frequently are passive and disengaged. , Many have found coping strategies to help (them get by, but they do not significantly improve their literacy skills or their knowledge in the content areas. I Although comprehension of text material is difficult and sometimes impossible for struggling readers, there are research-based strategies that have proven to be successful when used with struggling readers. One such strategy is instructional scaffolding, an effective strategy that gives students a better chance to be successful than if left on their own (Vacca, 2002). Pedagogy, which includes instructional techniques for diverse learners, is glossed over in many teacher preparation programs for secondary teachers. However, it is as important in the preparation of high school teachers as is cognitive knowledge (Darling-Hammond, 2000). If high school teachers are to make substantial contributions to all adolescents, it will require more knowledge of relevant instructional methodologies. Darling-Hammond (2000) found that teacher subject-matter knowledge was related to student achievement only up to a certain point. Secondary Teacher Literacy Challenges 15 Marzano (2003) asserts that the importance of the relationship between pedagogical knowledge and student achievement has been consistently reported in the research literature. Furthermore, in a study conducted by Ferguson and Womack (1993), they found that the number of courses teachers took in instructional techniques accounted for four times the variance in teacher performance and student achievement than did subject-matter knowledge. Teachers stated that more information about how to assist the struggling readers in their classrooms is sorely needed in preservice teacher education programs. Additionally they need to know that the strategies and support to assist these learners are realistic for today’s classrooms. Key Concepts and Vocabulary Helping students to understand concepts and vocabulary ranked as the fifth greatest challenge. Every subject area has its own vocabulary and modes of argument, and its language is the common denominator for learning subject matter knowledge. Vacca and Vacca (2002) agree: they state, â€Å"Vocabulary must be taught well enough to remove potential barriers to students’ understanding of texts as well as to promote a longterm acquisition of the language of a content area† (p. 160-161). Teachers want more knowledge about ways to teach vocabulary and concepts to adolescents, strategies that will provide adolescents with a deeper and richer entry into the content area of study, and strategies that will work in the classrooms of today. Intriguing Findings It is a noteworthy finding that the cultural and language diversity among students in the classrooms was not identified among the greatest challenges. The majority of teachers in this study were from diverse schools, and yet only two percent ranked this to be a challenge. Equally notable was the fact that state, district, and school standards, writing skills, and integrating technology were not identified among the greatest challenges. 16 Reading Horizons, 2004, 45, (1). Of all the findings, the most revealing was that provided by the driver’s education teachers: whereas every other content-area group of teachers, albeit art, music, business, foreign language, etc. , ranked student motivation as the greatest challenge, they did not. This is not surprising as it supports the findings of this study as well as long standing research in the field, as cited in Marzano, 2003. The hypothesis being that when motivated, students strive to learn.

Adult moral reasoning

For an intellectual Fowler’s framework could be the next â€Å"big thing† in terms of serious theoretical positions on the formation of morality and moral reasoning and the substance of faith. In a human perspective, Fowler successfully attempted to provide a picture that illustrates and guides both the individual being studied and the observer/scientist via the stages (Berger, 1994).Though these stages are not as explicitly applicable to all persons, like other psychologists such as Erikson and Maslow, Fowler’s important contribution apparently is more than expansion of Kohlberg or Piaget. His own personal journey, lengthy and in-depth research has given him a solid premise to work on (Berger, 1994).My personal journey may probably be described closely in the perspective which is described by Fowler. I don’t have much experience and enough intellectual prowess and scholarship to be in the position to do a thorough critique on the theory and theorist.Howev er, since it is a personal response paper, there is one segment that I can truly say that speaks a lot about who I am and my own journey. For instance, faith and morality are intricately intertwined just as faith, ethics and values are almost synonymous (Berger, 1994).Fowler may be correct to a certain extent in attributing specific concepts which indeed are descriptive of universal experiences (Berger, 1994), and I cannot argue with this theorist on this issue. It is altogether important to me that individuals must come to grips to the effects of personal faith on conduct and decision making process, and such issues as personal priorities.It is when a person decides to commit to what may be attributed as a mystical Being (i.e., in the conception of God) that spells a difference to that person’s worldview or way of life. I would still like to argue with Fowler that he has reduced so much to an intellectual explanation something which cannot be explained since there is a diffe rence (in my perspective and understanding) between mere knowledge of God and real spirituality.I personally don’t like it when intellectuals and philosophers settle to â€Å"study God† or morality and departing from real substantive and life changing faith.Reference:Berger, K. S. (1994). The developing person through the life-span. (3rd ed). Worth.

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Prepare an overview of the Banking Sector of INDIA. Mention your sources - Essay Example This has led to competition and generated new level of expectations among the consumers. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is the central bank of the country and it closely monitors the developments in the financial sector. The banking sector is dominated by Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs) including 27 Public Sector Banks (PSBs), 31 Private, 42 Foreign and 196 Regional Rural Banks as of March 2002 (Research & Markets, 2009). In addition, there were 67 scheduled co-operative banks consisting of 51 scheduled urban co-operative banks and 16 scheduled state co-operative banks. State Bank of India (SBI) is the largest bank in India with a market share of 20 percent while ICICI is the second largest bank in India. The commercial banks include the former development financial institutions (DFI) such as the ICICI and the IDBI. The commercial banks have on their books very long-duration GOI securities with some banks holding as much as 45 percent in these securities (Mor, Chandrasekhar & Wahi, 2005). The GOI and the RBI together direct and govern the functioning of the banks (Ra vichandran, 2003). The initiatives or the stimulus package by the GOI has transformed the banking industry which reflects in the significant growth in the banking sector as studied by Dun & Bradstreet, an international research body. Taking into account all banks of India, as of 2009, there are 56,640 branches or offices, 893,356 employees and 27,088 ATMs (IBEF, 2009). Public sector banks dominate the industry comprising of 87.7 percent of all offices, 82% of staff and 60.3% of all ATMs. As on 2nd January 2009, the aggregate bank deposits stood at 21.2% while the ban credit touched 24% against 21.4% as on January 4, 2008. There has also been an increase in the total flow of resources from the banking sector to the commercial sector which stood at US$ 58.83 billion up to January 2, 2009. Credit expansion varies across bank groups.

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No topic - Coursework Example The easiest part was the inclusion of moderate physical activity as part of a daily routine. Moderate exercises do not demand too much from the body. For example, a walking fast for thirty minutes was very refreshing. Some of the mild exercises like stationary cycling are things that I enjoy doing. The most difficult part of the recommendations is maintaining a vigorous activity for twenty minutes. The vigorous exercises were made more difficult because I had to do them after finishing the moderate exercises. For example, running vigorously for twenty minutes pushed my lungs to the limit. Managing the strengthening exercises was not a problem. The recommendations made me realizes that I need to create a routine physical activity schedule. Based on my performance, I should walk for at least 30 minutes on a daily basis. The walk will help in improving the ability of my lungs to hold air and strengthen my legs. I should also consider doing core exercises because I noticed that my core strength was very low. I struggled to finish ten sit ups. Finally, I should keep doing yoga exercises because they help with flexibility. The inclusion of these physical activities in my routine would help in increase my overall fitness. Do you believe these recommendations are easy or difficult for the average person to incorporate into their lifestyle? List your reasons for why it is easy or barriers that could make this difficult for the average person. I believe these recommendations are relatively easy for an average person to incorporate in his or her schedule. They are not too intense after some time. It is easy in the sense that the body can handle routine without interfering with normal operations. However, the incorporation of these recommendations is easy based on the types of exercises one chooses. For example, a person who loves basketball can put basketball as her vigorous activity. It makes the whole process fun. The incorporation of these

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No line sources - Essay Example God showed his blessings to humanity by choosing Abraham since the divine nature bestowed on him finally resulted in a huge clan, fastened by the twelve sons of Jacob, who considered the God of Abraham as their supporter and guardian. Jacob’s son hawked their young sibling, Joseph to dealers, who in turn hawked him as a slave in the Egyptian land. This was God’s work and plan since there came a time where there was famine in the land of Canaan and all the family was forced to go to Egypt to buy food. Unfortunately, Joseph rescued his family by providing them with food. This was a pure indicator of Good’s mercies to bless humanity. God promised Abraham that he will give him a son at his old age. The promises were finally fulfilled when he gave out his son at the old age. The son was Isaac and through his lineage, the world has turned to be a place of blessings. Through Abraham, God has made the world to turn to Him once more, despite the rejection and ignorance of mankind (Genesis 12:5-10). From the story of exodus, when God delivered his people from the land of suffering and misery to the Promised Land, it was an indicator that God was working to bless all humanity through the promises. This was also one of the promises that God gave to Abraham that He will give his people land to dwell in. this was a sign of blessings. The covenant also that God made to Moses, for example giving His people Ten Commandments to guide them through their life to avoid evils. The purification of his people on Mount Sinai was a significant indicator of God’s effort to bless his people (Exodus 5:3-12). God also showed blessing to the humanity through King David. David let known himself in the battle with the philistines at this period. When Saul and his son died, David was in position to assume leadership. He created an administrative center in Jerusalem that overextended from the boundary of Egypt

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See bellow - Essay Example Scientists have come up with ways to explain that modern man is still evolving, some of the ideas that have been brought on board are like that modern women tend to start their own families between the ages of 22 to 26. Another aspect is the Tibetans evolutionary change, which explains that people would adapt to low oxygen levels in high altitudes environments. Finally, the variation in reproduction, which means that selected traits favor particular kind of people, it has been noted that fertility is being categorized with natural selection, which means that women with narrow birth canal endanger the lives of both the babies and themselves. It also explains that babies with a large brain size get struck in the birth canal. Evolution can be defined as, â€Å"a process of change in a particular direction† (Vosse, 2010, p.9).Evolution tends to define the genesis of something. Evolutionists argue that, â€Å"simple organisms can evolve into complex organisms through natural means and denies any divine influence† (Vosse, 2010, p. 9). I agree with the phrase that man hasn’t stopped evolving, with the emergence of â€Å"modern man†. 600,000 years ago, a more sophisticated tool of technology advanced and these tools were efficient and included the cutting tools (Vosse, 2010). But still the technology didn’t advance. After many years, the fossil of modern man appeared and the technology changed. Modern man didn’t stop hunting, but he advanced domestic tools, art, clothing’s and jewellery. Modern man has challenged the evolution of man; this factor has been argued by the evolutionists who consider modern man to have evolved, since he was previously a hunter and gatherer living a similar life as the Homo erectus (Vosse, 2010). The modern man’s needs made him become a more efficient and equipped hunter, toolmaker, fire maker, and a social gatherer. The evolution biologists have noted is that the

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History of pencil - Essay Example The pencil did not appear until the Middle Ages, before that the majority of writing that was done was chiseled or etched into stone and later the Egyptians and Romans would introduce the stylus. The stylus was a thinned piece of lead that would leave light, but readable, marks on papyrus, an early precursor to paper (Pencil History, 2014).However, the fact, is that the grounds for the modern pencil was actually discovered by accident. As stated previously lead stylus were used to write, but in 1564 that would change. A new material, thought to be lead, which would be name graphite, was discovered in Borrowdale, England. Immediately it was noticed that it left dark black marks on the land. Many experts feel that this may have been discovered earlier by the Aztecs, as well. This black lead is, in fact, graphite, which is not a form of lead at all (Pencil History, 2014).The first graphite pencils were simply shards of graphite that were wrapped in cloth or string; ideally to keep the hands clean. The development of pencils began in Europe, particularly in Germany, which was the location of the first massed produced pencil industry in 1662 (Pencil History, 2014).Of course, these pencils did not look quite like the pencils of today. In fact these earliest pencils were not painted at all. However, it was a man named Nicholas-Jacques Conte, scientist in Napoleon’s forces, in 1795, who is credited with the inventi ng of the modern pencil (Popova). It was the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century that spawned the first pencil product war. Different manufacturers were determined to highlight their products from those of others. This is when colors were added to identify different pencils from different companies. In the United States at this time is when erasers were conveniently added to one end of the pencil. However, to this day the majority of pencils sold in the United Kingdom and the rest of Europe do not have and never have had

The durability of concrete Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The durability of concrete - Essay Example This research will begin with the definition of concrete, as a construction material. Concrete is a basic construction material, it is made of mainly four constituents, cement, fine aggregate(sand), coarse aggregate and water. With the addition of water to the cement and other components in dry form, this addition of water makes the concrete fluid and this flow able mixture enables us to pore in the desired shape and size which is dictated by the moulds and formwork. During this the water chemically bonds with the cement and hydration takes place. The ultimate strength of concrete is a factor of water cement ratio and this is the reason a precise mix ratio of concrete is calculated and mix design is prepared. Finally the dry components are combined to form hardened matrix. This final product, the concrete is good in compressive strength but weak in tensile strength. To finish this weakness we provide steel reinforcement which has high tensile strength. This concrete is called the rei nforced concrete. The concrete’s quality is determined by the quality and care taken while the production phase of the concrete. As we are well aware of the fact that elasticity of concrete is all most the same at low stress levels but tends to decrease as the higher stress levels are attained as matrix cracking develops. At the very same time the concrete is very weak in thermal expansion and has a low value of coefficient of thermal expansion. The content of cementitious material, along with the water content determine the final strength, durability, abrasion resistance, shrinkage values and many other properties. But the most important property that is under discussion is the Durability of concrete. Definition of Durability: Concrete durability has been defined by the American Concrete Institute as â€Å"its resistance to weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion and other degradation processes† Durability can also be defined as â€Å"the quality of materials or structures of continuing to be useful after an extended period of time and usage†. Whereas according to PCA(Portland Cement Association),† Durability is the ability to last a long time without significant deterioration†. Summarizing the above definition the durability is the ability of concrete to maintain it size, shape and all other properties against adverse environment with respect to time. Now the next issue is that what factors affect the durability of concrete and how can the material be improved to get the highest efficiency and life. There are several aspects that govern the strength of concrete and its life but the most effective way to calibrate this is to understand the process of deterioration in the first place. The most common proof of the deterioration process is the formation of the cracks and the detail study of the types of cracks will enable us to decide and deduce the reason, mechanism and solution to the problem. These cracks can be formed by during the plastic state or the hardened state. The reason of which will be discussed in details in the next sections. Processes of Deterioration There are several ways in which the deterioration of the concrete can be studied and processes explained but I believe that the most comprehensive pattern to understand this process is to first understand the cracks and types of cracks and then the reasons for their formation. Concrete has two forms during its formation and service. Firstly it is in fluid state and then the hardened state. Now we will discuss the processes under the two states. Fluid State deterioration and Crack propagation The reasons for these cracks are mainly due to the poor workmanship and handling. The main reasons among this are plastic shrinkage, settlement and lastly movement of formwork and subgrade during the construction work.

Public and Private Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Public and Private Culture - Essay Example There is a great danger of limiting one self to the boundaries of home just like a caterpillar in a cocoon for the rest of its life. The world is a garden of different flowers with various colors, aroma, beauty, and form that needs to tread and the school is just one among the many forms that we dip our feet into. One gets educated not to stay home and encapsulate himself/herself to the four corners of knowledge rather, a person moves out of the home, from the school, educated and fully equipped to conquer the world not with guns and wars but with the knowledge and skills to a better today. It should be an educated college student’s goal to be propelled to the world outside the home, family or culture where there is much to be discovered and even more to be had. Miss Moore’s effort in â€Å"The Lesson† to draw the children from their little world to go out and look at the big picture is highly commendable especially with her effort to bring them out from their li mited knowledge as their poverty allows them to have. There is a lot to learn and so many times, one is not fully equipped with the needed knowledge and skill to perform well in the society like Miss Moore despite the education that she claimed. Understanding the many facets of society by considering different cultures as well as the different roles of every individual gives a better view and comprehension of one’s rights as well as responsibilities.It is quite impossible to separate private from public culture just as it is difficult to separate public from private life.

Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 17

Personal Statement Example Personally, I find it thrilling to identify concrete ideas, which are empirically proven. Therefore, I felt a bit disappointed since mathematics applied only theoretical unproven ideas and I had no idea where to apply such theories in the real world. I still loved mathematics but I needed to find another more useful and concrete course. This idea came to my mind during my second year in college. Most of my friends began their internships that summer and that made me think hard about my future. I knew that pure mathematics could not help me find a job in the industry, thus, I commenced my study on applied mathematics. One of my roommates suggested to me that I undertake actuarial science, since it could enable me to apply the mathematical skills I had learned. One year of studying fundamental statistics equipped me with the knowledge of mathematical finance, life contingencies, and derivatives markets. Knowledge of the derivative market was fun for me since I got excited when I got stocks and options price by incorporating my mathematical skills. UI is one of the colleges in the United States with the best Actuarial Science programs in the United States. Most of the students undertaking it are graduates from other degree programs. Thus, sometimes one feels undermined by such classmates and it becomes hard to learn. In fact, I did not do well as I expected though I passed all the exams in that unit. I felt so excited to use this newly acquired knowledge thus I registered an account in option house with some money that my parents had lend me. I invested it in both the stock and the option markets. It was very disappointing to lose that money in three months, and I questioned myself on why this happened. I had counterchecked the theories, formulas and the financial model before investing and all was promising. Thus, I could not understand how I lost my small amount of investment in just three months. This

Analysis of “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin Essay Example for Free

Analysis of â€Å"The Story of an Hour† by Kate Chopin Essay The short story â€Å"The Story of an Hour† was written by Kate Chopin and first appeared in 1984. It tells about the ‘one hour’ brief story of the main protagonist, Louise Mallard, and her reaction upon hearing the news of her husband’s death by a car accident. And because she had a heart problem, her sister Josephine and her husband’s friend Richards decided to break to her the news as gently as possible. Not long after the supposedly bad news was revealed, Brently, Louise’s husband, suddenly comes home alive disproving the former, causing death to her by heart attack. Majority of the story’s progression revolve around Louise’s reaction upon hearing the news about her husband’s death (Brian, 2001). The scenes where Louise isolate herself in her room and savor her new-found freedom add up to the hanging idea of the real reason behind her death. It seems that the author actually give two possible emotional state to answer the underlying question of Louise’s joyful death: one is that she has become too overwhelmed to see her husband alive in contrary to the news about his involvement in a recent car accident and the other one is that she is saddened by the realization of the freedom that she thought she will have after hearing her husband’s loss is completely taken away from her again. Contrasting Representations Suprisingly, the short-story is written in complete contrasts of the main theme. First of these contrasting representations within the story is Louise’s reaction upon hearing the news. The news about her husband’s death should bring her agony and tears but instead; she sits calmly â€Å"facing the open window, a comfortable, roomy armchair. † Here we see a strange approach to the situation with the word â€Å"comfortable† being used to modify the chair near the window. Louise, a new widow herself, must not see the chair as â€Å"comfortable† as it seems just right after hearing the unbearable news of her husband’s death. Added to this, the scene outside the window also symbolizes something in contrast to the story’s progression. The spring day from the view outside her window shows a contrasting image to the situation she has. The spring is a symbol of â€Å"rebirth† or â€Å"new life† thus the spring prognosticates Louise’s new life after Brently’s death. Another interesting symbol in the story is the description of the view laid upon Louise’s eyes as she sits near the window: â€Å"The delicious breath of rain was in the air. In the street below a peddler was crying his wares. The notes of a distant song which some one was singing reached her faintly, and countless sparrows were twittering in the eaves† (Brian, 2001). For the readers, the description made by Louise about the view she was seeing clouds what her true emotions were at that moment. It seemed that as she isolated herself in a room, she completely disregarded the news of her husband’s death. These representations had become tricky in contrasting the main theme the story supposes to have or tell. Kate Chopin’s idea of a Joyful Death: Appearance versus Conflict What the readers may discover in reading this story is the possibility that there is an ironic truth behind the death of the main protagonist’s beloved. In the main setting of the story where Louis sits in a comfortable chair, she mouth over the words we never expect to read or hear from her. She seems to be happy rather than being sad about Brently’s loss with what the story emphasizes on her shouting â€Å"free, free, free! The freedom she pertains here signifies of her having the will to live a life all by herself, after her husband is gone. As she plays a youthful characteristic of a woman, it is a well played proof that she was indeed after the freedom, of doing what she want to do and make decisions for herself. With this fact, the story seems to have a conflict of its own: conflict between the ideas of appearance and reality. From the moment that the story emphasizes about Louise having her â€Å"freedom† at last, it could suggest the notion to the reader(s) that she is not saddened by the news. Unlike what she had shown in the central point of the story, Louise somehow is expected to grieve by the people around her, all having the idea that her marriage with Brently was a happy one. This is what her sister Josephine completely understood with her reaction as she misinterprets Louise’s behavior and thinking. She hysterically calls out her sister in the room, believing that Louise is heart-broken but in reality, Louise is more lightened up by the news. The doctors’ judgment about Louise’s death also deals with this conflict. For them, it seemed that Louise died after realizing that her husband is alive. This appearance of Louise’s happiness is more illustrated when they predicted that due to heart attack â€Å"of joy that kills† (Brians, 2001). Never did they think of the reality that she died because of another reason. That she dies because she was heart-broken to recognize the truth that she will not be able to gain her freedom as what she expected earlier. Role of Woman versus Man Another conflict in the story accentuates the role of woman versus man in the society. It is illustrated in the story that Louise is a submissive wife to Brently. But there is an internal struggle within her that tells that she was not happily married at all. As what Louise thinks, â€Å"What could love, the unsolved mystery, count for in face of this possession of self-assertion which she suddenly recognized as the strongest impulse of her being† justifies more to the idea that she, indeed, had loved Brently but more were the times she feel not. Maybe for Brently, Louise appeared to be happy with their relationship or he thinks and assumes that she is. Apparently, Louise wanted more the freedom she had felt for in that short while. After finding out the truth that she was not yet totally free, she had thought that only by death that she would took possession of it at last. There in death she would find peace and liberty. Ironically, Louise took the realization that her husband was alive and chose to die in able to attain the freedom she longed for. Character Analysis Chopin made her characters compliment along with the theme of the story. The main character, Louise plays a youthful wife who tends to have her freedom despite her marriage with Brently. Her youth marked up the end of her life and this irony of life, of choosing liberty by death, seemed to be one of the uncertain situations in the matter of choosing life over death. Brently, although his character is not discussed further on in the story, seemed to be playing a role of a husband who wants her wife under his control. Louise would never want liberation if he was a good man to her. His characteristic gives a deeper impact in the story, making Louise choose to die with freedom rather than living with him in a life full of despair. Josephine, Louise’s sister, was recognized here as a doting sister who takes care of her and all the matters that has a connection with her. Josephine, together with Richards, had taken care of gently telling to her the â€Å"death† of her husband Brently. She half-concealed the truth, in order for Louise to accept it without suffering her heart problem. Richards, Louise’s friend, is the one who brought the news to the house, he is responsible for assuring Brently’s death. As he rushes to tell the news to his friend, there is a suggestive truth that he was worried about what his friend’s reaction would be after hearing the news. If he had not rushed over to deliver the news, there is a possibility that Brently could arrive first in the house and justify that his name in the news is a big mistake, preventing Louise’s death and would have lived more. Apart from Brently, Richards is also responsible for the protagonist’s death. The story gives us the impression that not every death could bring grief to someone. It could be, in another way, a joyful event. Chopin had also brought about the issues of women and their role in the society. The story, written in the nineteenth-century, showed how women years back had no rights to be at their own will. Women then were still under the prying eyes of the society and men dominate over them. Chopin tackles a lot of moral issue within the story. Her story suggests that it would still be better if women of her own time maintain their roles in the society. In the nineteenth-century, men are expected to be superior over women and not the other way around, not what Louise wanted to be. Her insights within the story inspires us with the vision of what harmonious relationships are ought to be and the wide complexity in bearing the contrasting truth between appearance and reality. References: Brians, Paul. et al. Reading about the World. (Vol. 2) 3rd Edition. Texas: Harcourt Brace College, 2001.

Strategic Management Case Study: Honda

Strategic Management Case Study: Honda Ever since the days of Henry Ford, the global car manufacturing industry, one of the worlds biggest employers, has blazed the trail in both the product innovation, and perhaps most notably for the Japanese motor industry, the development of leading manufacturing methods. The industry is not unlike many others, with blistering competition on all fronts, which makes strategic planning utterly important for both the sort as well as long term survival of any industry player. The ratification of the Kyoto Protocol for instance, spurred car manufacturing companies into the adoption of strategies such as the closed-loop-strategies, in the not only the development of more efficient engines, but also the production, distribution, operation and ultimately recycling of decrepit cars etc. This report presents a review of a number of strategic alternatives by Honda and other automotive industries both in the West as well as Japan, in an attempt to establish the driving force behind Hondas success and growth. The first part of the report gives a description of Honda, followed by the reconciliation of several divergent strategies. Discussion of the differences, if any, between the western and Japanese styles of corporate leadership will unearth the myth behind Japans corporate culture before ultimately concluding with a discussion of the importance of both corporate governance as well as CSR. Contents (Jump to) HONDA, COMPANY PROFILE RECONCILIATION OF DICHOTOMIES PLANNING v. LEARNING POSITIONING VERSUS DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNAL RESOURCES CORE COMPETENCIES VERSUS CORE CAPABILITIES MANAGEMENT STYLES Lifelong Tenure CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS HONDA, COMPANY PROFILE With over 182,000 employees, ÂÂ ¥ 10,011, 241 million in annual revenues in 2009 coupled with upwards of $ 1370.1 million$ and 1896.4 in operating profits for the FY 2008 and 2009 respectively, Japans Honda is easily the industrys biggest manufactures of motor cycles, besides being a among the leading automobile producers. Operating across the globe, Honda is involved in the development, manufacturing as well as marketing and distribution of motor cars, motor cycles and a range other power products (Honda Ltd, 2010). It was founded in 1946, by Soichiro Honda and subsequently incorporated two years later, followed by years of success and growth as a motor cycle maker. Away from its core business, the companys 105 affiliates and 396 subsidiaries across the world provide financial services to thousands of its clients. It operates a four tier business model which includes the financial services division, motorcycle, automobile as well as power products (Honda Ltd, 2010). Besides multi wagons, Honda also produces a range of passenger cars, SUVs, mini vans, passenger cars, mini vehicles as well as sports coupes among others. Hondas flagship car and motor cycle models include the Accord, Civic, Legend, Insight, Acura CSX and Acura RL, CR-V, Cross Road, ASIMO Robots as well as the scooters among many others. The company recorded sales of over 10,114,000 units mainly in Japan, North America and Europe, representing an 8.5% rise over the previous years figures. Its sales have been on the rise despite through the global economic down turn that hit its American competitors, and largely driven by Toyotas PR woes over alleged flaws in the breaking system in its flagship Prius model. This success is largely attributable to the company strategic preparedness. Case in point, in 2002, it launched a hybrid car model to tap into the ever growing environmentally conscious clientele, besides launching the Environmental Learning Center (based in Texas), while in 2004, the company entered into a strategic partnership with GE, that led into the development and production of a trail blazing light jet engine, suited for business jets. Sethi and Swanson (1984), commencing in the year 2000, the company has embarked on an ambitious program to set up production plants in the emerging car and motor cycle markets, notably China, Argentina, Russia and the motor bike hot spot, Vietnam. The company prides itself with the twin principles of respect individuals and the Three Joys Principle i.e. buying, selling as well creating. These values reflect the company does wish to build on each persons unique abilities and its endeavor to ensure that everyone who comes by purchasing the products or by other means should have a great/joyous experience. Honda ensures this by relentlessly, lead in the creation of value, innovation, new products at accessible prices. RECONCILIATION OF DICHOTOMIES Honda ltds strategic innovation is founded on a process of dichotomies reconciliation which include both learning and planning, positioning on the market vs. internal resources development and lastly, core competencies related to the product against the core capabilities related to the processes. These three dichotomies do representing divergent strategies etc that drive Honda as a company since its establishment and through years of exemplary growth and expansion. De Wit Meyer (2010), assert that a critical look at Hondas strategies points especially its successful entry and dominance of new markets raises questions as to whether, Hondas strategy and subsequent decision making is solidly based on a meticulous, analytical and rational planning or whether its strategies are a direct result of the some decisions/ strategies reached at by the company, which evolved or became modified due to the environmental influences of the industry in which the company operates. PLANNING v. LEARNING While designing its strategies, the company has consistently followed a rational approach based on a critical analysis of the market and the industry environment. This strategy hinges on and it suited for a seasoned industry player such as Honda, since it seeks to built on, and exploit the companys immense experience in the automotive industry (Johnson et al., 2005). As a strategy, this is an important bottom up strategy that uses the already gained knowledge to optimize the companys needs. Planning takes into consideration both the companys resources as well as the environmental factors, as such will most likely utilize the companys set objectives within the constraints. Hondas largely seen as having successfully employed the planning strategy while entering into new markets notably while launching into the US motor cycle industry. Its recent strategic alliances with GE as well as its design and launch of innovative new products and expansion of manufacturing plants, in the ultimate attainment of huge scale economies and extremely law costs represent examples of internal planning. Planning is largely apparent from an outsiders point of view. However, interviews with the companys top management reveal a far different picture that suggests at best a company that is far from an overly rational, academic planning seeking to impose its corporate values and policies on the market and the industry, but rather a company, with a management structure that is at all times willing to learn. It is evident and widely accepted by many observers that Hondas strategies have evolved, without a clear plan or analysis of the industry. Case in point, the huge success attained by the companys 50 cc Supercab surprised everyone including the companys management. Mintzberg et al. (1998) observe that though the companys strategy may have looked analytical and well thought out, the management did blunder severally up until the market gave them the correct formula. Rational planning on its own is hardly, suited to many organizations and is in fact removed from the day to day running of a business as compared to learning, which permits management to continually develop and adjust their policies and strategies as they are implemented, in the light of new experience (De Wit Meyer, 2010). Hondas development of hybrid vehicles and energy efficient models e.g. the Honda Civic Sedan, in the wake of Toyotas success in the same field represent examples of learning from the environment. Honda has as well launched joint ventures in RD with other companies. Using both strategies gives the company an advantage, not least because it only allows the formulation of strategies that best meet both the internal resources as well as the environmental factors prevailing in the industry. POSITIONING VERSUS DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNAL RESOURCES Hondas positioning helps its brand to be associated with a given market segment. It is an equally helpful guide to the companys other strategies, particularly the marketing strategy, not least because it does clarify the essence of the brand and the helps the consumers to better identify the goals that the product seeks to meet in a unique way. In positioning a product or brand, managers must make decisions, seeking to appeal a given segment of the population, while at once risking losing the other(s). Honda has placed its various products on the basis of benefit, target, distribution as well as prices. The company offers competitive prices owing to its scale and technology advantages, which in turn permits it to achieve better client franchises. This strategy does however; affect the prestige of the brand, besides reducing the profit margins. Target, distribution and benefit positioning, that has seen the introduction of green models to serve the needs of green conscious clients, co upled by Hondas expansion into India, China and Vietnam, which was entirely meant at catering for emerging middle class in those countries. As against, development of internal resources, Hondas product positioning allows it to use fewer resources but still reach the target markets. It however, has enormous resources in capital, management, cutting production technology as well as manpower, which have driven the companys expansion across the globe. More investment in RD is, and has been possible, leading to greater innovation. While other smaller industry players struggle with limited resources constraining their RD as well as expansion, bigger companies like Honda, Toyota and GM can attain a better edge in the industry. Hondas has been able to pursue both strategies owing to the availability of niche products that it has successfully positioned e.g. motor bikes in Vietnam (over 400,000 units in annual sales), coupled by its huge availability of resources which allows it rope for RD, diversification and expansion. This does not entirely hold though, Honda spends just a fifth of GM expenditure on RD and launches fewer mode ls than the latter, yet it products/models are more successful than GMs. CORE COMPETENCIES VERSUS CORE CAPABILITIES Competencies are as a result of coordination of multiple production skills as well as a complex coordination of numerous technologies. They give a company access to newer markets; provide high barriers for competitors to enter the market, besides contributing considerably to the benefits of the end product(s). Hondas core competencies as regards products are the driving force behind the development of the numerous, innovative end user products. Hamel Prahalad regard Hondas product competencies as a brilliant example of how a small company can break into, and establish itself in a mature, stable market. In 2010 alone, Honda has set up a solar H2 station (Los Angeles), introduced the versatile iGX and GX engine series for general purposes. The company has as well produced lithium-ion based batteries intended for the new range of hybrid motor vehicles, alongside an ELC to spear head its green agenda. Honda is famed for its ability to recycle technologies in all its range of products, affording it RD efficiency. There are elements of core capabilities associated with its processes, but perhaps far lacking behind Toyota and many other industry players. These include efficient distribution channels, cost effective production processes. It trains dealers, determines shop floor plans and has strict operating procedures among others. Core product competencies in the automobile industry are far superior to the process capabilities and Hondas success is an outstanding testimony to this fact. MANAGEMENT STYLES Japanese and Hondas management styles do differ from the American style in at least six distinct aspects. These include differences in the interdepartmental relationships, communication patterns, and supervisory styles, mechanisms for control as well as existence of, or lack of a paternalistic orientation. According to Hofstede (2004), these differences largely stem from the inherent cultural differences between the two countries, which in turn influence the respective corporate cultures. Lifelong Tenure Most of the companies in Japan do provide lifelong jobs to their employees, with greater emphasis being laid on not age, but also seniority. Promotions are thus much more difficult, just as there is greater job security for the workers. Many organizations effectively hire employees for the, and are interested in the long term objectives as against Americas corporate worlds obsession with short term goals. Case in point, Hondas top management i.e. Satoshi Aoki (Chairman), Takanobu Ito, Koichi Kondo and Atsuyoshi Hyogo joined the company in 1968, 1978, 2000 and 1972 respectively, during which time they have risen through the ranks to reach the top management. On the contrary, the western corporate world is characterized by short term contracts for both managers and workers, charged with meeting short term objectives. Teams v. Individuals In contrast with the Western model where managers are responsible for decision making and subsequently accountable for the decisions reached, the Japanese system recognizes the importance of individual expertise, but the performance of the entire team is more emphasized than an individuals. In the western corporate world (Germany and American), certain employees have the star statuses e.g. in Germany, the engineers play central roles to the success of motor companies. Some elements of convergence exist though. Long apprenticeships and cadres (seniorities in Japan) do exist both in Germany, France as well as the Netherlands. Employees attain positions, promotions etc. through years of internships, apprenticeships or memberships to given classes-attained through education and or experience. Decision Making While most western corporations are characterized by top down decision making, the Japanese style of management is largely characterized by collective decision making by individual teams. Hondas decision making is characterized by the Ringi system, where decisions are passed based on a consensus of all the employees in a department or even the entire organization. This management style is identical to that practiced in Holland, except that the latter is anchored on existing contracts or class differences of among the employees. Communication As against the largely bureaucratic communication, hierarchical channels characterizing western corporations, which is largely effective and efficient, the Japanese channels of communication compromise in large part of face-to-face communication. These comprise everything from provision of information regarding assignment of tasks, responsibilities, organizational goals and the development and rechanneling of feedbacks. Implicit Mechanism of Control Honda ltd is concerned with building of its relationships with it biggest assets, the employees. Inspired by its philosophy Respect for the Individual, the company always seeks to develop collaborative relationships with each and every employee, where all mechanisms of control and supervision are largely informal. Supervisors work alongside other employees, who are involved, the decision making, which in turn renders decision making, execution of decisions and reception of feedback a lot more expedient. On the contrary, Hondas competitors run on a rigid, formal control mechanism. This sets goals, measurable, complete with targets that must be met by departments, franchises and individual employees, while the Japanese system is anchored on the management philosophies that all employees as well as managers identify with. Departmental Relationships Pascale Athos (1981), states that attainment of the goals set for a department etc requires inputs not just from the concerned departments, but perhaps most importantly, close collaboration with other departments in the company or even other organizations. Formal (necessary) relationships largely accomplish these goals (characteristic of the western model), while the Japanese style has an extra dimension; voluntary collaboration which is far more productive and results in greater knowledge sharing. Paternalistic Orientation Honda and many other Japanese companies are concerned by the holistic needs of every employee, including the concern for the well being of their families (Culpan, 2009). This imposes a social support role on the managers, a feature which is largely absent in the western world, safe for a limited number of family organizations. CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY With car markets in the developed world already saturated, most car companys are looking abroad in the emerging markets notably China, India and Brazil. A recent study by TNS shows that car buyers rate car makers more according to their CSR than those consumer in the first world, thus companies that perform better in this sphere stand a far greater chance of winning the hearts and minds of the new middle class is guaranteed success. In 2005, Honda was ranked the UKs best car company based on its social responsibility initiatives, by the foremost research company on automotives, TNS Automotive. It performs equally well in the US, Indonesia, Italy and Spain among other countries alongside BMW, Shell, Malaysias Petronas, Michelin and Germanys Porsche (Nissan Corp., 2010). Honda spent over 2.3% of its annual revenues in 2009, on its CSR commitments, with the environment taking the lions share of the budget. The company has undertaken numerous actions in an attempt to meet the challenges posed by global warming and climate change. With the reputation of the automobile industry and fossil fuels already damaged, due to its huge carbon footprints, and the growing fears among the public of air pollution, it is only reasonable that companies act in accordance to the wishes of the consumers. Honda has initiated the LCA system, which identifies and sets targets for the required actions. The company develops energy efficient models, adheres by the 3Rs (in design) and noise reduction etc. Hondas corporate governance is a typical Japanese style bottom down structure, characterized by collective decision making and a collective sense of belonging among to the company that in turn reflects on the companys performance (Honda Ltd, 2010). Any companys corporate governance does determine the direction that it assumes, which ultimately reflects on its financial performance. Nissans corporate philosophy, governance as well CSR activities are not different from Hondas. It seeks to bring enrichment of the peoples lives and the environment in which they operate. It has made CSR an important part of its corporate management policies. It has devised its green purchasing guidelines, coupled with Nissan-Renault Suppliers Guidelines, which ensure that the companys entire supply chain is green and serves the purposes of the policies set by its top management. Through its charitable arm, Chryslers management makes annual donations to needy communities, projects and causes (Chrysler, 2010). In 2009, the company advanced upwards of $100000 to Good Harvest geared at combating hunger. The companys CSR initiatives are not as extensive as both Nissan and Hondas partly because the company caters for the luxury market segments that are in the main concerned about the quality and luxury as against a companys CSR etc. CONCLUSIONS Honda is largely touted by observers and varied literatures in strategic management. Its strategies have largely been used either rightly or wrongly to back up a number of conceptual dichotomies, with contracting positions i.e. learning v. analytical planning, core capabilities v competencies etc. Most of these assumptions, and evidences have however, proven erroneous owing to empirical mistakes that result into the over emphasis of the companies strengths, while its mistakes go largely unnoticed. Further, strategies and explanations are expressed in form of reductionist, single-sided theories that largely fail to portray the actual strategic orientation of Honda. Hondas thrives on reconciling dichotomies. Thus many observers in the west have largely missed out in studying, learning from and understanding Honda. Rohlen (1974), it is evident that capabilities as well as competencies can possibly complement one another, forming into one theory. The latter does focus on the production expertise and technologies while the capabilities serving to improve the whole chain of value. Capabilities are far more visible and easily appreciated by the clients than are product competencies. Hondas ability to meet high targets and post tremendous growth rates is largely due to its tendency to set stretched targets, which brings into direct competition with the biggest players in the automotive industry. In order to compete, it uses its resource base to compete by either providing niche products or undercutting competitors on basis of cost advantages, attained through scale economies. This ability to leverage her resources offers the key to its success, as against the widely fabled Japanese management styles. This style is widely different from and more appealing that the western style corporate management is only suitable for the Japanese and Asian environments. There are aspects in both management styles that could beneficially be, and have largely been adopted by either side to the great advantage of the corporations, but not the complete management packages as they will be utter failures in the other ones environment (Schein, 1981). Finally, this report has demonstrated the importance of corporate governance, policy and CSR is important in the ever changing consumer tastes as well as preferences, and most importantly, increasing consumer awareness. RECOMMENDATIONS Increased spending and expansion of Hondas and other automotive companies in CSR, environmental protection and production of innovative environmentally friendly models should continue as the only way counter changing consumer needs as well as the changing times. The Western and Japanese styles of corporate management should be blended to suit both the practical and strategic objectives of each organization. Reconciliation of strategies is crucial for success and helps companies reap the benefits of divergent strategies, thus companies must seek common grounds between strategies rather than opting for only one.